Grammar Reference
English Grammar by CEFR Level
Master essential grammar rules from A1 to C2. Each topic includes formula blocks, real examples, and clear usage guidelines for every proficiency level.
Category
CEFR Level
Present Simple
Used for habits, facts, and permanent states
1 min
A1
tenses
CEFR A1·tenses
Time frame
always / habitualPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / We / They
(eat, play, work)
He / She / It
(eats, plays, works)
Examples
Positive
I eat breakfast every morning.
Negative
I do not eat meat.
Question
Do you like coffee?
Common Time Markers
every day
always
usually
never
sometimes
Usage
- •Things you do every day
- •Things that are always true
- •Situations that do not change
Past Simple
Used for completed actions at a specific past time
1 min
A1
tenses
CEFR A1·tenses
Time frame
completed pastPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / He / She / It / We / They
(walked, played, worked)
Examples
Positive
I walked to school yesterday.
Negative
I did not see the movie.
Question
Did you go to the party last night?
Common Time Markers
yesterday
last week
in 2020
ago
last night
Usage
- •Completed actions in the past
- •Past events at a specific time
- •Actions that happened one after another
Future with Will
Used for predictions, promises, and spontaneous decisions
1 min
A1
tenses
CEFR A1·tenses
Time frame
predicted / decided nowPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / He / She / It / We / They
will
Examples
Positive
I will call you tomorrow.
Negative
He will not come to the meeting.
Question
Will you help me with this?
Common Time Markers
tomorrow
next week
in the future
later
soon
Usage
- •Decisions made at the moment of speaking
- •Predictions and beliefs about the future
- •Promises and offers
Verb "To Be"
Forms identity, location, feeling, and description
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
I
am
You / We / They
are
He / She / It
is
Examples
Positive
I am a teacher.
Negative
We are not students. He is not tall.
Question
Are you happy? Is she a doctor?
Usage
- •Identity and profession
- •Location and position
- •Feelings and condition
Articles: A, An, The
Used for specific vs general reference with nouns
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
a
+ consonant sound
(a book, a dog)
an
+ vowel sound
(an apple, an hour)
the
+ specific / known
(the book, the sun)
Examples
Positive
I have a cat.
Negative
This is not a chair.
Question
Do you have a pencil? Is the door open?
Usage
- •Indefinite articles (a/an) for first mention or any member of a group
- •Definite article (the) for specific or known items
- •No article for uncountable nouns and general plurals
Have Got
Used for possession and characteristics in informal British English
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
I / You / We / They
have got
He / She / It
has got
Examples
Positive
I have got a new phone.
Negative
She hasn't got any brothers.
Question
Have you got a pen?
Usage
- •Possession and ownership (mainly British English)
- •Physical characteristics and relationships
- •Availability of something
Plural Nouns
Forms plurals for more than one countable noun
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
+ s
(cat → cats, book → books)
ends in s, x, ch, sh
+ es
(box → boxes, watch → watches)
ends in consonant + y
y → ies
(baby → babies, city → cities)
irregular
change form
(man → men, child → children)
Examples
Positive
I have two cats and three children.
Negative
There are no books on the shelf.
Question
How many sisters do you have?
Usage
- •More than one of a countable noun
- •General groups: "Dogs bark." (all dogs)
- •Plural-only nouns: scissors, trousers, glasses (no singular form)
Possessive Adjectives
Used for showing ownership or relationship before a noun
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
→
I → my
you → your
he → his
she → her
it → its
we → our · they → their
Examples
Positive
This is my book.
Negative
It is not your phone.
Question
Is this their house?
Usage
- •Show ownership or relationship before a noun
- •Always followed by a noun (my car, her brother)
- •No -s on possessive adjective even with plural noun: "my books" not "mys books"
Demonstratives: This, That, These, Those
Used for pointing to near or far people, things, or ideas
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
this
(this book, this house)
that
(that car, that idea)
these
(these shoes, these days)
those
(those people, those years)
Examples
Positive
This is my pen.
Negative
That is not my problem.
Question
Is this your bag? Are these your shoes?
Usage
- •Point to people, things, or ideas
- •"This/these" for things near you · "that/those" for things farther away
- •Can stand alone ("This is good.") or modify a noun ("This cake is good.")
There Is / There Are
Used for stating existence or presence of something in a place
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
There is
(There is a cat.)
There are
(There are two cats.)
There isn't / There aren't
Is there…? / Are there…?
Examples
Positive
There is a problem.
Negative
There isn't any milk. There aren't any chairs.
Question
Is there a bank near here? Are there any questions?
Usage
- •Say that something exists or is present
- •Describe what is in a place
- •Talk about quantity (there are five…)
Imperative
Used for commands, instructions, requests, or advice
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
(Stop! Look! Sit down.)
Don't
(Don't run! Don't worry.)
Let's
(Let's go! Let's try.)
Examples
Positive
Open the door, please.
Negative
Don't touch that! Don't be late.
Question
— (imperatives are commands, not questions)
Usage
- •Give orders, commands, or instructions
- •Make requests, offers, or invitations (often with "please")
- •Give warnings or advice
Question Words: What, Where, When, Why, How, Who
Used for asking specific information using what, where, when, why, how, who
1 min
A1
other
CEFR A1·other
Formula
WH-word
What
thing/info
Where
place
When
time
Why
reason
How
manner/way
Who
person
Examples
Positive
What is your name?
Negative
I don't know who he is.
Question
When does the train leave?
Usage
- •Ask for specific information (not yes/no answers)
- •Place WH-word at the start of the question
- •Follow with auxiliary verb (do/does/did/is/are) + subject + main verb
Present Continuous
Used for actions happening now or temporary situations
1 min
A2
tenses
CEFR A2·tenses
Time frame
happening NOWPastNowFuture
Formula
I
am
You / We / They
are
He / She / It
is
Examples
Positive
I am watching a movie right now.
Negative
She is not studying at the moment.
Question
Are you listening to music?
Common Time Markers
now
right now
at the moment
today
Usage
- •Actions happening at the moment of speaking
- •Temporary actions and situations
- •Planned future events (with future time marker)
Past Continuous
Used for interrupted past actions or background description
1 min
A2
tenses
CEFR A2·tenses
Time frame
in progress (past)PastNowFuture
Formula
I / He / She / It
was
You / We / They
were
Examples
Positive
I was sleeping when you called.
Negative
They were not playing football yesterday.
Question
What were you doing at 8 PM?
Common Time Markers
at 3 PM
while
when
yesterday at...
Usage
- •Actions in progress at a specific past time
- •Background action when another action happened
- •Two simultaneous actions in the past
Future with Going to
Used for decided plans and evidence-based predictions
1 min
A2
tenses
CEFR A2·tenses
Time frame
intended / plannedPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / He / She / It / We / They
am / are / is
going to
Examples
Positive
We are going to visit Italy next summer.
Negative
It is not going to rain tomorrow.
Question
Are you going to invite Sarah to the party?
Common Time Markers
next week
tomorrow
tonight
later
Usage
- •Plans and intentions for the future
- •Predictions based on present evidence
- •Actions definitely decided before speaking
Comparatives and Superlatives
Used for comparing qualities between items or identifying the extreme
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
Comparative: adj + er
than
(bigger, faster, longer)
Superlative: the + adj + est
(the biggest, the fastest)
more + adj + than
(more expensive, more beautiful)
Examples
Positive
This book is more interesting than that one.
Negative
This car is not as fast as my old one.
Question
Is Paris bigger than Madrid? What is the longest river?
Usage
- •Comparing two people, things, or groups
- •Showing superiority among all in a group
- •Using more/less with longer adjectives
Prepositions of Time and Place
Used for time and location relationships using in, on, at
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
in
months, years, seasons
(in June, in 2024)
on
specific days, dates
(on Monday, on 15th)
at
specific times, places
(at 3 PM, at home)
Examples
Positive
The meeting is on Friday at 2 PM.
Negative
He does not work at the office today.
Question
Where are you at the moment? When is your birthday?
Usage
- •Locating events and objects in time
- •Indicating physical location and position
- •Expressing duration and frequency
Can / Could
Expresses ability, possibility, or polite requests
1 min
A2
modals
CEFR A2·modals
Formula
can / could
Examples
Positive
I can swim very well.
Negative
He can't drive a car. They couldn't come to the party.
Question
Can you speak French? Could you help me, please?
Usage
- •Can: present ability, permission, or possibility
- •Could: past ability, polite requests, or weaker possibility
- •Could: more polite than "can" for requests
Adverbs of Frequency
Used for stating how often something happens
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
(always eat, never drink)
(am always late)
Examples
Positive
I always brush my teeth before bed.
Negative
She never eats fast food.
Question
Do you usually walk to work?
Common Time Markers
always
usually
often
sometimes
rarely
never
Usage
- •Describing how often something happens
- •Placed before the main verb but after "to be"
- •Can be used with Present Simple to describe habits
Possessive 's
Used for showing ownership or association using apostrophe + s
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
+ 's
(Tom's car, the dog's tail)
+ ' (apostrophe only)
(the boys' room, the girls' team)
+ 's
(the children's toys, the men's shoes)
Examples
Positive
This is Sarah's bag.
Negative
That isn't Tom's car.
Question
Is this John's phone? Are these the children's books?
Usage
- •Show possession (Tom's bag = the bag belongs to Tom)
- •Show relationships (my sister's husband)
- •Used mainly with people, animals, time expressions, and places
Quantifiers: Some, Any, Much, Many, A Lot Of
Used for unspecified quantities in positive, negative, and question contexts
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
some
any
much
(much water, much time)
many
(many books, many people)
a lot of / lots of
+ both
(a lot of friends, a lot of money)
Examples
Positive
I have some apples and a lot of time.
Negative
I don't have any milk. I haven't got much money.
Question
Do you have any questions? How many siblings do you have?
Usage
- •Talk about indefinite quantities of countable/uncountable nouns
- •Some = positive, Any = negative/question (general rule)
- •Much (uncountable) and Many (countable) — mostly in negative/question; A lot of works everywhere
Basic Linkers: And, But, Or, Because, So
Used for connecting ideas within or between sentences
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
and
addition
(I like tea and coffee.)
but
contrast
(It's cold but sunny.)
or
choice
(Tea or coffee?)
because
reason
(I'm tired because I worked late.)
so
result
(I was tired, so I went to bed.)
Examples
Positive
I like apples and oranges, but I don't like grapes.
Negative
She didn't call because she lost her phone.
Question
Would you like tea or coffee?
Usage
- •Join two ideas in one sentence
- •Show relationships: addition, contrast, choice, reason, result
- •Help your sentences flow more naturally and sound more advanced
Object Pronouns: Me, You, Him, Her, It, Us, Them
Used for replacing nouns as the object of a verb or preposition
1 min
A2
other
CEFR A2·other
Formula
→
I → me
you → you
he → him
she → her
it → it
we → us · they → them
Examples
Positive
She called me yesterday.
Negative
I don't know them very well.
Question
Did you see her at the party?
Usage
- •Replace nouns that receive the action (object of a verb)
- •Come AFTER the verb or preposition (not before)
- •Use after prepositions: "for me", "with him", "to them"
Present Perfect
Used for past actions that still matter or connect to now
1 min
B1
tenses
CEFR B1·tenses
Time frame
past → now (relevance)PastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / We / They
have
He / She / It
has
Examples
Positive
I have lived in London for five years.
Negative
She has not finished her homework yet.
Question
Have you ever traveled to Asia?
Common Time Markers
recently
already
yet
for
since
ever
just
Usage
- •Actions that started in the past and continue to the present
- •Completed actions with present relevance
- •Life experiences up to now
Present Perfect Continuous
Used for ongoing actions that started in the past and still continue
1 min
B1
tenses
CEFR B1·tenses
Time frame
ongoing → nowPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / We / They
have been
He / She / It
has been
Examples
Positive
We have been working on this project for three months.
Negative
He has not been sleeping well lately.
Question
How long have you been studying English?
Common Time Markers
for
since
how long
all morning
Usage
- •Actions starting in the past and continuing to the present
- •Emphasis on the duration of an ongoing action
- •Recent activities with visible results
Modal Verbs
Expresses ability, obligation, permission, or possibility
1 min
B1
modals
CEFR B1·modals
Formula
can / could / may / might / must / should
Examples
Positive
You can speak three languages.
Negative
I cannot play the piano. He should not have done that.
Question
Can you help me? Could you lend me some money?
Usage
- •Ability (can), possibility (may/might), necessity (must), advice (should)
- •Expressing obligation, permission, and possibility
- •Making polite requests and offers
Passive Voice (Basic)
Used for sentences where the action or result matters more than who did it
1 min
B1
voice
CEFR B1·voice
Formula
is / are / was / were
by + agent (optional)
Examples
Positive
The letter was written by John.
Negative
The house was not built in 2010.
Question
Was the email sent by Sarah? Are the documents being prepared?
Usage
- •Shifting focus from the action to the object or result
- •When the agent is unknown or unimportant
- •More formal or objective tone in writing
Used To
Used for past habits or states that no longer exist
1 min
B1
tenses
CEFR B1·tenses
Time frame
past habit (ended)PastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / He / She / It / We / They
used to
Examples
Positive
I used to play football every weekend.
Negative
She didn't use to like vegetables, but now she loves them.
Question
Did you use to live here?
Common Time Markers
when I was young
as a child
in the past
back then
Usage
- •Past habits or repeated actions that no longer happen
- •Past states that are no longer true
- •Contrasting the past with the present
Future Continuous
Used for actions in progress at a specific future moment
1 min
B1
tenses
CEFR B1·tenses
Time frame
in progress (future)PastNowFuture
Formula
will be
Examples
Positive
This time tomorrow, I will be flying to Paris.
Negative
She won't be working on Saturday.
Question
Will you be using the car tonight?
Common Time Markers
this time tomorrow
at 8 PM
next week
all day
when you arrive
Usage
- •Action in progress at a specific future moment
- •Polite questions about future plans
- •Planned or expected future actions (without arranging anything new)
Question Tags
Used for confirming information or seeking agreement at the end of a statement
1 min
B1
other
CEFR B1·other
Formula
,
? (You're tired, aren't you?)
,
? (You're not tired, are you?)
Examples
Positive
You are coming, aren't you?
Negative
She doesn't speak French, does she?
Question
They have arrived, haven't they?
Usage
- •Check information or seek confirmation
- •Invite agreement in conversation
- •Rules: opposite polarity, use the same auxiliary, match the subject pronoun
Linking Words: However, Although, Despite, In Spite Of
Used for connecting contrasting ideas using concession and contrast markers
1 min
B1
clauses
CEFR B1·clauses
Formula
However
, + new sentence
(contrast between sentences)
Although / Even though
(Although it rained, we went out.)
Despite / In spite of
(Despite the rain, we went out.)
Examples
Positive
It was raining; however, we went for a walk.
Negative
Although she studied hard, she didn't pass the exam.
Question
Did you enjoy the trip despite the bad weather?
Usage
- •Show contrast or concession between two ideas
- •Connect sentences (however) or join clauses (although) or attach a noun phrase (despite)
- •Make writing more formal and sophisticated
Past Perfect
Used for the earlier of two past events to show sequence
1 min
B2
tenses
CEFR B2·tenses
Time frame
before another past eventPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / He / She / It / We / They
had
Examples
Positive
When I arrived, she had already left.
Negative
He had not studied enough for the exam.
Question
Had they finished the project before the deadline?
Common Time Markers
already
before
by the time
after
Usage
- •Action completed before another action in the past
- •Showing sequence of past events
- •Results or consequences of past actions
Future Perfect
Used for actions completed before a specific future point
1 min
B2
tenses
CEFR B2·tenses
Time frame
complete BY future pointPastNowFuture
Formula
I / You / He / She / It / We / They
will have
Examples
Positive
By next year, I will have lived here for ten years.
Negative
She will not have finished the book by tomorrow.
Question
Will you have completed your studies by 2025?
Common Time Markers
by next week
by the time
in five years
by next month
Usage
- •Action that will be completed before a specific future time
- •Showing completion of future actions
- •Duration up to a future point
Conditionals (0, 1, 2, 3)
Forms real, hypothetical, and impossible conditions across all time frames
1 min
B2
conditionals
CEFR B2·conditionals
0
always true
1st
likely future
2nd
unreal now
3rd
unreal past
Formula
Type 0:
If + present
, present
(always true)
Type 1:
If + present
Type 2:
If + past
Type 3:
If + past perfect
Examples
Positive
If I were rich, I would travel the world.
Negative
If he doesn't call, I won't forgive him.
Question
What would you do if you won the lottery?
Usage
- •Type 0: General truths and facts
- •Type 1: Possible future scenarios
- •Type 2: Imaginary present situations
- •Type 3: Past unreal situations
Reported Speech
Used for converting direct speech to indirect speech with tense and pronoun shifts
1 min
B2
clauses
CEFR B2·clauses
Formula
Direct:
"I am tired," she said
Reported:
She said (that) she was tired
He asked if I was coming
Examples
Positive
She said she would help me.
Negative
He said he didn't want to go.
Question
She asked, "Will you come?"
Usage
- •Conveying what someone said without using their exact words
- •Tense changes in reported speech
- •Changes in reporting verbs (say, tell, ask, etc.)
Gerund vs Infinitive
Used for choosing between -ing and to+verb after verbs, adjectives, or prepositions
1 min
B2
other
CEFR B2·other
Formula
enjoy, mind, finish, suggest
want, promise, decide, hope
Both possible:
like, love, hate, start, begin
Examples
Positive
I enjoy reading novels in the evening.
Negative
I don't mind waiting. They don't want to leave.
Question
Do you like swimming? What do you want to do?
Usage
- •Gerunds: used as nouns
- •Infinitives: after certain verbs and with purpose
- •Verbs that take both with different meanings
Causative Have
Used for arranging for someone else to do something for you
1 min
B2
voice
CEFR B2·voice
Formula
have / get
Examples
Positive
I had my car repaired at the garage.
Negative
She didn't get her hair cut this month.
Question
Are you going to have your apartment painted?
Usage
- •Arranging for someone else to do something for you
- •Expressing that a service was done by a professional
- •Formal and informal contexts (have = formal, get = informal)
Past Perfect Continuous
Used for an ongoing action that continued up to a past event
1 min
B2
tenses
CEFR B2·tenses
Time frame
ongoing up to past pointPastNowFuture
Formula
had been
Examples
Positive
She had been waiting for two hours when he finally arrived.
Negative
They hadn't been studying long before the test.
Question
How long had you been working there?
Common Time Markers
for
since
how long
before
until
Usage
- •Action in progress that continued up to a past moment
- •Cause / explanation of a past situation ("She was tired because she had been running")
- •Duration of a past action before another past event
Future Perfect Continuous
Used for duration of an ongoing action up to a future point
1 min
B2
tenses
CEFR B2·tenses
Time frame
ongoing → future pointPastNowFuture
Formula
will have been
Examples
Positive
By next June, I will have been working here for 10 years.
Negative
She won't have been studying long by then.
Question
How long will you have been waiting by 5 PM?
Common Time Markers
by
by the time
for
when
in (X years)
Usage
- •Emphasize duration of an action up to a specific future point
- •Action that started in past/present and continues until a future moment
- •Predict an ongoing situation at a future time
Modal Perfects: Deduction About the Past
Expresses deductions about past events using must/can't/might + have
1 min
B2
modals
CEFR B2·modals
Formula
must have
(strong certainty)
can't / couldn't have
(impossibility)
might / may / could have
(possibility)
should have / shouldn't have
(criticism / regret)
Examples
Positive
She must have left already.
Negative
He can't have known about the meeting.
Question
Could she have forgotten?
Usage
- •Make deductions about past events based on evidence
- •Express degrees of certainty: must (sure) → might/may/could (possible) → can't (impossible)
- •Criticize past actions or express regret with should/shouldn't have
Participle Clauses
Used for reducing clauses using -ing or past participle for concise formal style
1 min
B2
clauses
CEFR B2·clauses
Formula
(Walking down the street, I saw…)
(Built in 1890, the house…)
earlier action
(Having finished, she left.)
Examples
Positive
Walking down the street, I noticed a strange noise.
Negative
Not knowing the answer, she remained silent.
Question
— (participle clauses are not used in questions directly)
Usage
- •Shorten relative clauses or adverbial clauses
- •Express reason, time, or condition more concisely
- •Common in formal/written English; sound sophisticated
Mixed Conditionals
Expresses how a past event affects the present (or vice versa)
1 min
C1
conditionals
CEFR C1·conditionals
0
always true
1st
likely future
2nd
unreal now
3rd
unreal past
Formula
If + past perfect
, would / could + present
If + past simple
Examples
Positive
If he had learned English as a child, he would speak it fluently now.
Negative
If he hadn't been late, we wouldn't be in trouble now.
Question
If you had known the truth, would you still be here?
Usage
- •Mixing past condition with present result
- •Mixing present condition with past result
- •Complex hypothetical scenarios
Inversion with Negative Adverbials
Expresses strong emphasis by inverting verb and subject after negative openers
1 min
C1
other
CEFR C1·other
Formula
(Never, Only, Seldom)
Examples
Positive
Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.
Negative
Not only did he win the race, but he also set a record.
Question
Only then did they realize what they had done.
Usage
- •Creating emphasis and dramatic effect
- •Formal written and spoken English
- •Common after negative adverbials at the start of a clause
Advanced Relative Clauses
Forms precise noun phrases by defining, extending, or reducing relative clauses
1 min
C1
clauses
CEFR C1·clauses
Formula
(no comma)
(with commas)
: adds extra information
Examples
Positive
The book which I recommended is a bestseller.
Negative
Not applicable
Question
The architect whose designs won awards is coming to speak.
Usage
- •Providing essential information to identify nouns
- •Adding non-essential additional information
- •Reducing clauses to more concise forms
Wish and If Only
Expresses regrets about the past or desires contrary to present reality
1 min
C1
other
CEFR C1·other
Formula
Wish + past simple
: present wish
Wish + past perfect
: past regret
If only (similar structure)
Examples
Positive
I wish I spoke Japanese fluently.
Negative
Not applicable
Question
Don't you wish you had taken that opportunity?
Usage
- •Expressing regrets and desires contrary to reality
- •Present unreal situations with past simple
- •Past regrets with past perfect
Conditional Perfect (Would Have)
Expresses imagined or unrealised outcomes in the past
1 min
C1
conditionals
CEFR C1·conditionals
Formula
would have
wouldn't have
Examples
Positive
I would have helped you if I had known.
Negative
She wouldn't have said that if she'd been calm.
Question
Would you have accepted the offer?
Usage
- •Imaginary past actions / unreal results in the past
- •Speculation about how something could have turned out
- •Common in 3rd conditional and mixed conditional patterns
Discourse Markers
Used for organising and signalling structure or stance in formal speech or writing
1 min
C1
other
CEFR C1·other
Formula
organize, signal attitude, manage flow
Addition
moreover, furthermore, what's more
Contrast
on the other hand, mind you, having said that
Result
as a result, consequently, hence
Topic shift
by the way, anyway, incidentally
Examples
Positive
Having said that, the rewards could be significant.
Negative
I don't enjoy big parties. Mind you, this one might be fun.
Question
By the way, did you hear about the meeting?
Usage
- •Connect ideas across sentences (not just within them)
- •Signal the speaker's attitude or stance
- •Make speech and writing flow more naturally and sound more advanced
Substitution and Ellipsis
Used for avoiding repetition using short substitute forms or deliberate omission
1 min
C1
other
CEFR C1·other
Formula
Substitution
replace word with shorter form
("Do you want one?" "one" = a coffee)
so / not
("I think so." "I hope not.")
do / does / did
("She loves coffee, and so do I.")
Ellipsis
omit understood words
("Want some?" = Do you want some?)
Examples
Positive
He likes pizza and so do I.
Negative
She didn't say, but I assume not.
Question
You've been there? Yes, several times.
Usage
- •Avoid repetition and sound more natural
- •Common in spoken English and informal writing
- •Critical for natural-sounding fluency at advanced levels
Cleft Sentences
Used for splitting a clause to emphasise or focus on one key element
1 min
C2
clauses
CEFR C2·clauses
Formula
It + is/was
+ focus word
+ that/who
+ rest of sentence
Examples
Positive
It was Sarah who won the competition.
Negative
It wasn't his technique but his dedication that made him successful.
Question
Was it really on Monday that you saw him?
Usage
- •Emphasizing a particular part of a sentence
- •Creating focus and contrast in discourse
- •Sophisticated written English for academic and professional contexts
Subjunctive Mood
Expresses necessity, demands, or hypotheticals in formal registers
1 min
C2
other
CEFR C2·other
Formula
It is essential / important / recommended
Formal subjunctive:
(without inflection)
Examples
Positive
It is crucial that she be informed immediately.
Negative
It is essential that they not be disturbed.
Question
Is it necessary that everyone attend the meeting?
Usage
- •Expressing necessity, recommendation, or urgency
- •Formal registers in academic, legal, and professional writing
- •After certain verbs (suggest, insist, demand, recommend)
Advanced Passive Voice
Used for distancing, causative, and impersonal reporting in formal contexts
1 min
C2
voice
CEFR C2·voice
Formula
It is said / believed / known that...
(less common)
Examples
Positive
She had her house repainted last summer.
Negative
It is not thought that this will succeed.
Question
Will you have the document translated?
Usage
- •Expressing causation with nuanced meaning
- •Creating formal, objective discourse
- •Shifting responsibility or agency in communication
Future in the Past
Expresses what was planned or expected from an earlier point in the past
1 min
C2
tenses
CEFR C2·tenses
Time frame
"future" from a past viewPastNowFuture
Formula
would / was/were going to / was/were about to
Examples
Positive
He was going to apply but changed his mind.
Negative
He didn't think he would ever see her again.
Question
Did you know he was going to propose?
Usage
- •Expressing future plans from a past perspective
- •Narrative devices in storytelling
- •Reported speech and indirect discourse
Fronting and Marked Themes
Used for moving elements to sentence-initial position for contrast or thematic emphasis
1 min
C2
clauses
CEFR C2·clauses
Formula
fronted element
+ rest of sentence
("That book, I have already read.")
("So beautiful was the view…")
Adverbial fronting
("Down the road came a horse.")
Examples
Positive
That problem, we solved long ago.
Negative
Not a word did he say all evening.
Question
Such was the result that no one believed it.
Usage
- •Emphasize a specific element by moving it to the front
- •Create contrast, drama, or rhythmic flow
- •Common in literary, journalistic, and formal writing
Information Packaging (Existential There, Extraposition)
Used for controlling where given and new information falls for maximum clarity
1 min
C2
clauses
CEFR C2·clauses
Formula
Existential there
("There were rumors of a strike.")
Extraposition with "it"
("It is clear that we must act.")
("Mistakes were made…")
Fronting heavy info
put new/important info at the END
Examples
Positive
It is essential that everyone arrives on time.
Negative
There weren't many people at the conference.
Question
Is it true that they've left already?
Usage
- •Move long or new information to where it gets natural emphasis (usually the end)
- •Use "there" or "it" as a placeholder to keep the sentence structure smooth
- •Make complex sentences easier to process for the reader/listener
Stylistic Devices: Parallelism, Anaphora, Tricolon
Forms memorable rhythm using repeated structures, patterns, or word groups
1 min
C2
other
CEFR C2·other
Formula
Parallelism
repeat the same grammatical structure
("To err is human, to forgive divine.")
Anaphora
("We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight…")
Tricolon
three parallel parts
("Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.")
Examples
Positive
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Negative
No food, no sleep, no rest — that was their reality.
Question
Was it ignorance, was it indifference, was it spite?
Usage
- •Add rhythm, emphasis, and memorability to speech and writing
- •Common in speeches, advertising, slogans, and literary writing
- •Make ideas more persuasive and easier to remember